What explains the cycles of strife plaguing parts of Africa throughout their chequered history?
Political power struggles, ideological clashes, internal pulls and pressures, and the battle for resources have all played a role in this turbulence. Yet, the primary trigger remains what many consider a historical injustice – the Berlin Conference.
In the winter of 1884, representatives from 14 European powers and the US gathered in the German capital for a conclave that would forever alter the continent.
No African was present. No African was consulted.
The Berlin Conference assumed the role of judge and jury to establish the rules for the colonial partition of Africa, setting in motion a scramble that would disrupt centuries of African sovereignty and self-governance.
“It was a meeting of the white powers of the day. In order to avoid killing each other in front of Africans, they had to agree on a procedure of acquiring territories in the African continent,” Prof Macharia Munene, who teaches history and international relations at the United States International University in Nairobi, tells TRT Afrika.
With the stroke of a pen, European powers drew lines across a map with scant regard for the people who lived there. These were lines that cut through communities, cultures, and histories.
The result? Fragile states, deep ethnic divisions, and tensions that have since fuelled wars and atrocities – from the Rwandan genocide to the civil wars in Sudan, Liberia and Sierra Leone, and even the ongoing conflict in the Democratic Republic of Congo.
“The chaos and the fighting that we see in various parts of Africa are part of the continuing imperialist external control,” says Prof Munene.
“Colonialists simply tried to pretend that Africans didn't know anything, didn't do anything, didn’t have any history prior to that, and it was deliberate. It was not an accident; it was concocted amnesia, because part of the conquest is to convince the conquered that he's useless and has nothing of value.”
Africa of yore
Long before European powers arrived in Africa, the continent was already a land of thriving civilisations.
Stories abound of the Malian monarch Mansa Musa’s legendary wealth. His pilgrimage to Mecca was so lavish that it purportedly devalued gold. The Zulu Kingdom commanded fear and respect from all, while the Ashanti Kingdom dominated through military might.
The Kingdom of Kush, a thriving Nubian powerhouse, controlled the lucrative regional trade in gold, ivory and iron. The Ethiopian and Songhai empires, the Kingdom of Aksum, and Great Zimbabwe shaped history with their influence. The Kingdom of Benin was a major centre for learning and trade.
While Africa had borders even then, they were dynamic, shaped by natural landscapes, cultural ties, and alliances, not the rigid artificial lines drawn by outsiders.
Prior to the Berlin Conference, European presence in Africa had been limited mainly to coastal trading posts.
The Portuguese came in the 1480s, followed by the Dutch, French, British and, later, the Germans.
By the late 19th century, a perfect storm of factors – industrial revolution advancements, medical discoveries, and fierce economic competition – fuelled Europe's sudden interest in African territories.
With the development of quinine as protection against malaria and steamboats capable of navigating African rivers, the continental interior suddenly became accessible. Locked in fierce competition, European powers viewed Africa as the new frontier for imperial expansion.
“The Europeans had guns….and the Africans, the best they had at the time were spears and shields. They were puzzled by this new order of the white man, and since when you refuse, they have big guns, you get beaten. And when you get beaten, eventually you submit,” says Prof Munene.
Forced justification
The Berlin Conference was ostensibly called to regulate trade along the Congo and Niger rivers. However, its true purpose soon became clear: establishing rules for claiming African territories.
The conclave allowed each European power to say, “This is our sphere of influence.” It was a way to avoid conflicts among the Europeans by agreeing on who would control which parts of Africa.
From November 1884 to February 1885, delegates established the "effective occupation” principle. This doctrine stipulated that European claims to African territories would only be recognised if they demonstrated actual control through treaties with local leaders, establishing an administration, or deploying police or military forces.
The participants also agreed on free trade in the Congo Basin and unhindered navigation of the Niger and Congo rivers. But perhaps, most significantly, they established a framework for the "legal" acquisition of colonies.
The arbitrary boundaries cut through approximately 190 cultural groups. Ancient kingdoms were split apart, while traditional enemies were forced together within newly created colonial states.
Between 1884 and 1914, Europe's share of African territory increased from 10% to almost 90%. This rapid colonisation was achieved through a combination of deceitful treaties, military force, and the exploitation of local conflicts.
The European powers found that they could use some people against others. They exploited these local, tribal and religious divisions. Many Africans found themselves helping Europeans to colonise other Africans.
Participants of the Berlin Conference cloaked their imperial ambitions in the language of humanitarianism and civilisation. Article 6 of the General Act of the conference committed the European powers to "watching over the preservation of the native tribes, and to care for the improvement of the conditions of their moral and material well-being”.
King Leopold II of Belgium, who secured personal control of the Congo through the conference, claimed humanitarian motives while establishing a brutal regime that caused the deaths of millions of Congolese. Similarly, other colonial powers implemented policies prioritising European economic interests over African lives and welfare.
It wasn't just about money, though. During this period, nationalism surged, transforming colonialism into a competitive race for glory. Missionaries justified their actions by claiming to bring civilisation and Christianity, furthering the colonial agenda.
Legacy of Berlin
The consequences of the Berlin Conference continue to reverberate across Africa in the 21st century.
“By 1914, the whole of the African continent had been claimed by one European or another. They forced the Africans to accept what the Europeans had agreed in Europe, which meant creating new identities for the conquered area,” Munene tells TRT Afrika.
By the mid-20th century, a wave of change swept across Africa. As European powers weakened and faced global pressure after World War II, nationalist movements emerged around the continent.
Germany's backing of Israel against genocide charges at the International Court of Justice has infuriated Namibia, whose indigenous people bore the brunt of German soldiers' bloodlust 120 years ago.
Slowly but surely, they dismantled the colonial chokehold on their territories. Libya kicked things off in 1951, followed by Sudan, Morocco, and Tunisia in 1956.
The turning point came in 1960, known as the “Year of Africa”, when 17 countries broke free from colonial rule. The momentum continued through the 60s to the 90s, with South Africa ending the oppressive apartheid rule in 1994.
So, did independence end colonialism in Africa?
“Colonialism never ended. And the worst part of that unending colonialism was mental control,” says Prof Munene.
“We still have that continuous struggle between those who think that they should be consulting the West or some other external forces on whatever they do, and those who think no, that that's wrong, we should be thinking ourselves of the solutions. The right to interpret what is African and who should be making decisions in Africa should be African.”
As arbitrary colonial borders, persistent exploitation of resources and economic inequalities continue to stifle Africa’s development, the words of UN secretary-general António Guterres ring true.
“The world must never forget that Africa is the victim of two colossal and compounded injustices: first, the profound impact of colonialism, and the transatlantic slave trade. The roots stretch back centuries, and the bitter fruit continues to affect Africans and people of African descent to this day.”
